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== Early life ==
[[File:Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.png|thumb|left|Elizabeth's parents, Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Anne was executed less than three years after Elizabeth's birth.]]
Elizabeth was born at [[Greenwich Palace]] and was named after her grandmothers, [[Elizabeth of York]] and [[Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire|Elizabeth Howard]].<ref>Somerset, 4.</ref> She was the second child of [[Henry VIII of England]] born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henry's second wife, [[Anne Boleyn]]. At birth, Elizabeth was the [[heir presumptive]] to the throne of England. Her older half-sister, [[Mary I of England|Mary]], had lost her position as a legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, [[Catherine of Aragon]], to marry Anne, with the intent to sire a male heir and ensure the Tudor succession.<ref>Loades, 3–5</ref><ref>Somerset, 4–5.</ref> She was baptised on 10 September 1533; Archbishop [[Thomas Cranmer]], the [[Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter|Marquess of Exeter]], the [[Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk|Duchess of Norfolk]] and the [[Margaret Wotton, Marchioness of Dorset|Dowager Marchioness of Dorset]] stood as her godparents. A canopy was carried at the ceremony over the three-day old child by her uncle [[George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford|Viscount Rochford]], [[John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford|Lord Hussey]], [[Lord Thomas Howard]], and [[William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stanley, Earl of Derby|first1=Edward|title=Correspondence of Edward, Third Earl of Derby, During the Years 24 to 31 Henry VIII.: Preserved in a Ms. in the Possession of Miss Pfarington, of Worden Hall, Volume 19|date=1890|publisher=Chetham Society|page=89}}</ref>
Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536,<ref>Loades, 6–7.</ref> four months after Catherine of Aragon's death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession.<ref>An Act of July 1536 stated that Elizabeth was "illegitimate ... and utterly foreclosed, excluded and banned to claim, challenge, or demand any inheritance as lawful heir ... to [the King] by lineal descent". Somerset, 10.</ref> Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married [[Jane Seymour]], who died shortly after the birth of their son, [[Edward VI of England|Edward]], in 1537. From his birth, Edward was undisputed [[heir apparent]] to the throne. Elizabeth was placed in his household and carried the [[chrisom]], or baptismal cloth, at his christening.<ref>Loades, 7–8.</ref>
[[File:El bieta I lat 13.jpg|thumb|A rare portrait of Elizabeth prior to her accession, attributed to [[William Scrots]]. It was painted for her father in {{circa}} 1546.]]
Elizabeth's first [[governess]] (or Lady Mistress), [[Margaret Bryan]], wrote that she was "as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life".<ref>Somerset, 11. Jenkins (1957), 13</ref> [[Catherine Champernowne]], better known by her later, married name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's governess in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her death in 1565. Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, [[Flemish language|Flemish]], Italian and Spanish.<ref>Weir, ''Children of Henry VIII'', 7.</ref> By the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, [[Latin]], and Italian. Under Grindal, a talented and skilful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek.<ref>Our knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity comes largely from the memoirs of [[Roger Ascham]], also the tutor of Prince Edward. Loades, 8–10.</ref> After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under [[Roger Ascham]], a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be engaging.<ref>Somerset, 25.</ref>
By the time her formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of the best educated women of her generation.<ref>Loades, 21.</ref> At the end of her life, Elizabeth was also believed to speak [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Scots language|Scottish]] and [[Irish language|Irish]] in addition to the languages mentioned above. The Venetian ambassador stated in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that each appeared to be her native tongue".<ref>[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=95577 "Venice: April 1603"], ''Calendar of State Papers Relating to English Affairs in the Archives of Venice'', Volume 9: 1592–1603 (1897), 562–570. Retrieved 22 March 2012.</ref> Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by [[William Killigrew (Chamberlain of the Exchequer)|William Killigrew]], Groom of the Privy Chamber and later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.<ref>Stoyle, Mark. ''West Britons, Cornish Identities and the Early Modern British State'', University of Exeter Press, 2002, p. 220.</ref>
== Thomas Seymour ==
Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at age nine. [[Catherine Parr]], Henry's widow, soon married [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley]], Edward VI's uncle and the brother of the Lord Protector, [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]]. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]]. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life.<ref name="loades2">Loades, 11.</ref> Thomas Seymour, approaching age 40 but having charm and "a powerful sex appeal",<ref name="loades2"/> engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth. These included entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her and slapping her on the buttocks. Parr, rather than confront her husband over his inappropriate activities, joined in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her while he cut her black gown "into a thousand pieces."<ref>Starkey ''Elizabeth: Apprenticeship'', p. 69</ref> However, after Parr discovered the pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs.<ref>Loades, 14.</ref> In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.
However, Thomas Seymour continued scheming to control the royal family and tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King's person.<ref>Haigh, 8.</ref><ref>Neale, 32.</ref> When Parr died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.<ref>Williams ''Elizabeth'', 24.</ref> The details of his former behaviour towards Elizabeth emerged,<ref>Loades, 14, 16.</ref> and for his brother and the [[Privy Council of England|king's council]], this was the last straw.<ref name="neale">Neale, 33.</ref> In January 1549, Seymour was arrested on suspicion of plotting to marry Elizabeth and overthrow the Lord Protector. Elizabeth, living at [[Hatfield House]], would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Sir Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see it in her face that she is guilty".<ref name=neale/> Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549.
== Mary I's reign ==
Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His will swept aside the [[Succession to the Crown Act 1543]], excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir [[Lady Jane Grey]], granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister, [[Mary Tudor, Queen of France|Mary]]. Jane was proclaimed queen by the Privy Council, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days. On 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side.<ref>Elizabeth had assembled 2,000 horsemen, "a remarkable tribute to the size of her affinity". Loades 24–25.</ref>
[[File:Felipe of Spain and MariaTudor-2010-13-09.jpg|thumb|Philip and Mary I, during whose reign Elizabeth was heir presumptive]]
The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary, a devout Catholic, was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away in 1554 when she announced plans to marry [[Philip II of Spain|Philip of Spain]], the son of [[Holy Roman Emperor Charles V]] and an active Catholic.<ref>Loades, 27.</ref> Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies.
In January and February 1554, [[Wyatt's rebellion]] broke out; it was soon suppressed.<ref>Neale, 45.</ref> Elizabeth was brought to court, and interrogated regarding her role, and on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]]. Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence.<ref>Loades, 28.</ref> Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Charles V's ambassador [[Simon Renard]], argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and the Chancellor, [[Stephen Gardiner]], worked to have Elizabeth put on trial.<ref>Somerset, 51.</ref> Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including [[William Paget, 1st Baron Paget|Lord Paget]], convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to [[Woodstock, Oxfordshire|Woodstock]], where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Sir [[Henry Bedingfeld|Henry Bedingfield]]. Crowds cheered her all along the way.<ref name="loades29">Loades, 29.</ref><ref>"The wives of Wycombe passed cake and wafers to her until her litter became so burdened that she had to beg them to stop." Neale, 49.</ref>
[[File:Hatfield House Old Palace.jpg|thumb|left|Hatfield House, where Elizabeth lived during Mary's reign]]
On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to attend the final stages of Mary's [[Mary I of England#False pregnancy|apparent pregnancy]]. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen. If, on the other hand, Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child.<ref>Loades, 32.</ref> Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.<ref>Somerset, 66.</ref>
King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality and cultivated his sister-in-law. She was a better ally than the chief alternative, [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], who had grown up in France and was betrothed to the [[Francis II of France|Dauphin of France]].<ref>Neale, 53.</ref> When his wife fell ill in 1558, King Philip sent the [[Gómez Suárez de Figueroa y Córdoba, 1st Duke of Feria|Count of Feria]] to consult with Elizabeth.<ref>Loades, 33.</ref> This interview was conducted at Hatfield House, where she had returned to live in October 1555. By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans for her government. On 6 November, Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir.<ref>Neale, 59.</ref> On 17 November 1558, Mary died and Elizabeth succeeded to the throne.
== Accession ==
[[File:Elizabeth I in coronation robes.jpg|thumb|Elizabeth I in her coronation robes, patterned with [[Tudor rose]]s and trimmed with [[ermine]]]]
Elizabeth became queen at the age of 25, and declared her intentions to her Council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. The speech contains the first record of her adoption of the mediaeval [[political theology]] of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural and the [[body politic]]:<ref>Kantorowicz, ix</ref>
<blockquote>My lords, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed, and yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me. And as I am but one body naturally considered, though by His permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to me, that I with my ruling and you with your service may make a good account to Almighty God and leave some comfort to our posterity on earth. I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel.<ref>Full document reproduced by Loades, 36–37.</ref></blockquote>
As her [[triumphal progress]] wound through the city on the eve of the [[Coronation of Elizabeth I of England|coronation ceremony]], she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".<ref>Somerset, 89–90. [http://special-1.bl.uk/treasures/festivalbooks/BookDetails.aspx?strFest=0231 The "Festival Book" account, from the British Library]</ref> The following day, 15 January 1559, a date chosen by her astrologer [[John Dee]],<ref name="IHR">{{cite web|url=http://www.history.ac.uk/eseminars/sem2.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930073802/http://www.history.ac.uk/eseminars/sem2.html|archivedate=30 September 2007| title=John Dee and the English Calendar: Science, Religion and Empire|author = Dr. Robert Poole|publisher=Institute of Historical Research|date=6 September 2005|accessdate=26 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Literature Compass|author=Szönyi, György E.|title=John Dee and Early Modern Occult Philosophy|volume=1|issue=1|pages=1–12|date=2004}}</ref> Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by [[Owen Oglethorpe]], the Catholic [[bishop of Carlisle]], in [[Westminster Abbey]]. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.<ref>Neale, 70.</ref> Although Elizabeth was welcomed as queen in England, the country was still in a state of anxiety over the perceived Catholic threat at home and overseas, as well as the choice of whom she would marry.<ref>Loades, xv.</ref>
== Church settlement ==
{{main|Elizabethan Religious Settlement}}
[[File:Nicholas Hilliard (called) - Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|''The Pelican Portrait'' by [[Nicholas Hilliard]]. The [[pelican]] was thought to nourish its young with its own blood and served to depict Elizabeth as the "mother of the Church of England".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/collections/13c-16c/elizabeth.aspx |title='Queen Elizabeth I: The Pelican Portrait', called Nicholas Hilliard (c. 1573) |year=1998 |website=Walker Art Gallery |publisher=National Museums Liverpool |accessdate=29 July 2012 |location=Liverpool, United Kingdom |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416214748/http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/collections/13c-16c/elizabeth.aspx |archivedate=16 April 2014 |df= }}</ref>]]
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions have been much debated by scholars. She was a Protestant, but kept Catholic symbols (such as the crucifix), and downplayed the role of sermons in defiance of a key Protestant belief.<ref name=collinson>Patrick Collinson, "Elizabeth I (1533–1603)" in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2008) [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8636, accessed 23 Aug 2011]</ref>
In terms of public policy she favoured pragmatism in dealing with religious matters. The question of her legitimacy was a key concern: although she was technically illegitimate under both Protestant and Catholic law, her retroactively declared illegitimacy under the English church was not a serious bar compared to having never been legitimate as the Catholics claimed she was. For this reason alone, it was never in serious doubt that Elizabeth would embrace Protestantism.
Elizabeth and her advisers perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England. Elizabeth therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of English Protestants; she would not tolerate the more radical [[Puritan]]s though, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms.<ref>{{cite book|title=This Sceptred Isle 1547–1660|chapter=Disc 1|isbn=978-0-563-55769-2|last1=Lee|first1=Christopher|authorlink1=Christopher Lee (historian)|origyear=1995|year=1998|title-link=This Sceptred Isle}}</ref> As a result, the parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the [[Edward VI of England#Reformation|Protestant settlement of Edward VI]], with the monarch as its head, but with many Catholic elements, such as vestments.<ref>Loades, 46.</ref>
The [[House of Commons of England|House of Commons]] backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the [[House of Lords]], particularly from the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the [[Archbishopric of Canterbury]].<ref>"It was fortunate that ten out of twenty-six bishoprics were vacant, for of late there had been a high rate of mortality among the episcopate, and a fever had conveniently carried off Mary's Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Reginald Pole]], less than twenty-four hours after her own death". Somerset, 98.</ref><ref>"There were no less than ten sees unrepresented through death or illness and the carelessness of 'the accursed cardinal' [Pole]". Black, 10.</ref> This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England]] rather than the more contentious title of [[Supreme Head]], which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear. The new [[Act of Supremacy 1559|Act of Supremacy]] became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the [[heresy]] laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary. At the same time, a new [[Act of Uniformity 1559|Act of Uniformity]] was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of an adapted version of the 1552 [[Book of Common Prayer]] compulsory, though the penalties for [[recusancy]], or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme.<ref>Somerset, 101–103.</ref>
== Marriage question ==
From the start of Elizabeth's reign, it was expected that she would marry and the question arose to whom. Although she received many offers for her hand, she never married and was childless; the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships.<ref>Loades, 38.</ref><ref>Haigh, 19.</ref> She considered several suitors until she was about fifty. Her last courtship was with [[Francis, Duke of Anjou]], 22 years her junior. While risking possible loss of power like her sister, who played into the hands of King [[Philip II of Spain]], marriage offered the chance of an heir.<ref>Loades, 39.</ref> However, the choice of a husband might also provoke political instability or even insurrection.<ref>Retha Warnicke, "Why Elizabeth I Never Married," ''History Review,'' Sept 2010, Issue 67, pp. 15–20</ref>
===Robert Dudley===
[[File:Elizabeth and Leicester miniatures by Hilliard.png|thumb|Pair of [[Portrait miniature|miniatures]] of Elizabeth and Leicester, c. 1575, by [[Nicholas Hilliard]]. Their friendship lasted for over thirty years, until his death.]]
In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with her childhood friend [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester|Robert Dudley]].<ref>Loades, 42; Wilson, 95</ref> It was said that [[Amy Robsart]], his wife, was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would like to marry Dudley if his wife should die.<ref>Wilson, 95</ref> By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were vying for Elizabeth's hand; their impatient envoys engaged in ever more scandalous talk and reported that a marriage with her [[favourite]] was not welcome in England:<ref>Skidmore, 162, 165, 166–168</ref> "There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation ... she will marry none but the favoured Robert."<ref>Chamberlin, 118</ref> Amy Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from a flight of stairs and, despite the coroner's [[inquest]] finding of accident, many people suspected Dudley of having arranged her death so that he could marry the queen.<ref>Somerset, 166–167. Most modern historians have considered murder unlikely; breast cancer and suicide being the most widely accepted explanations (Doran ''Monarchy'', 44). The [[coroner]]'s report, hitherto believed lost, came to light in [[The National Archives (United Kingdom)|The National Archives]] in the late 2000s and is compatible with a downstairs fall as well as other violence (Skidmore, 230–233).</ref> Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time. However, William Cecil, [[Nicholas Throckmorton]], and some conservative [[Peerage of England|peers]] made their disapproval unmistakably clear.<ref>Wilson, 126–128</ref> There were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place.<ref>Doran ''Monarchy'', 45</ref>
Among other marriage candidates being considered for the queen, Robert Dudley continued to be regarded as a possible candidate for nearly another decade.<ref>Doran ''Monarchy'', 212.</ref> Elizabeth was extremely jealous of his affections, even when she no longer meant to marry him herself.<ref>Adams, 384, 146.</ref> In 1564, Elizabeth raised Dudley to the peerage as [[Earl of Leicester]]. He finally remarried in 1578, to which the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred towards his wife, [[Lettice Knollys]].<ref>Jenkins (1961), 245, 247; Hammer, 46.</ref> Still, Dudley always "remained at the centre of [Elizabeth's] emotional life", as historian [[Susan Doran]] has described the situation.<ref>Doran ''Queen Elizabeth I'', 61.</ref> He died shortly after the defeat of the [[Spanish Armada|Armada]]. After Elizabeth's own death, a note from him was found among her most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.<ref>Wilson, 303.</ref>
===Foreign candidates===
[[File:Nicholas Hilliard 002.jpg|thumb|upright|The Duke of Anjou, by [[Nicholas Hilliard]]. Elizabeth called him her "frog", finding him "not so deformed" as she had been led to expect.<ref>Frieda, 397.</ref>]]
Marriage negotiations constituted a key element in Elizabeth's foreign policy.<ref name="haigh2">Haigh, 17.</ref> She turned down Philip's own hand early in 1559 but for several years entertained the proposal of King [[Eric XIV of Sweden]].<ref>Elizabeth Jenkins ''Elizabeth the Great'' London 1959 p. 59; Karin Tegenborg Falkdalen ''Vasadöttrarna'' {{ISBN|978-91-87031-26-7}} p. 126; Michael Roberts ''The Early Vasas'' Cambridge 1968 pp. 159, 207</ref> For several years she also seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin [[Charles II, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Charles of Austria]]. By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated, and Elizabeth considered marriage to two French [[House of Valois|Valois]] princes in turn, first [[Henry III of France|Henry, Duke of Anjou]], and later, from 1572 to 1581, his brother [[Francis, Duke of Anjou]], formerly Duke of Alençon.<ref>Loades, 53–54.</ref> This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the [[Southern Netherlands]].<ref>Loades, 54.</ref> Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time, and wore a frog-shaped earring that Anjou had sent her.<ref>Somerset, 408.</ref>
In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen and married".<ref name="haigh2"/> Later in the year, following Elizabeth's illness with [[smallpox]], the [[succession to Elizabeth I of England|succession question]] became a heated issue in Parliament. They urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. She refused to do either. In April she [[legislative session#Procedure in Commonwealth realms|prorogued]] the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566. Having promised to marry previously, she told an unruly House:
<blockquote>I will never break the word of a prince spoken in public place, for my honour's sake. And therefore I say again, I will marry as soon as I can conveniently, if God take not him away with whom I mind to marry, or myself, or else some other great let happen.<ref>Doran ''Monarchy'', 87</ref></blockquote>
By 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem.<ref name="haigh2"/> For her failure to marry, Elizabeth was often accused of irresponsibility.<ref>Haigh, 20–21.</ref> Her silence, however, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered that the way "a second person, as I have been" had been used as the focus of plots against her predecessor.<ref>Haigh, 22–23.</ref>
Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin or a goddess or both, not as a normal woman.<ref>John N. King, "Queen Elizabeth I: Representations of the Virgin Queen," ''Renaissance Quarterly'' Vol. 43, No. 1 (Spring, 1990), pp. 30–74 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2861792 in JSTOR]</ref> At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin".<ref name = "Hh">Haigh, 23.</ref> Later on, poets and writers took up the theme and turned it into an [[iconography]] that exalted Elizabeth. Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen's marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alençon.<ref>Susan Doran, "Juno Versus Diana: The Treatment of Elizabeth I's Marriage in Plays and Entertainments, 1561–1581," ''Historical Journal'' 38 (1995): 257–74 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639984 in JSTOR]</ref>
Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all my husbands, my good people".<ref>Haigh, 24.</ref>
== Mary, Queen of Scots ==
[[File:MaryQueenofScotsMourning.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Mary's French relatives considered her the rightful Queen of England and had the English arms emblazoned with those of Scotland and France.<ref>Guy, 96–97.</ref>]]
Elizabeth's first policy toward [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] was to oppose the French presence there.<ref>Haigh, 131.</ref> She feared that the French planned to invade England and put her Catholic cousin [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], on the throne. Mary was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, [[Margaret Tudor|Margaret]]. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath".<ref>Guy, 115.</ref><ref>On Elizabeth's accession, Mary's [[Counts and Dukes of Guise|Guise]]</ref> Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting [[Treaty of Edinburgh]] of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north.<ref>By the terms of the treaty, both English and French troops withdrew from Scotland. Haigh, 132.</ref> When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth.<ref>Loades, 67.</ref> Mary refused to ratify the treaty.<ref name="loades">Loades, 68.</ref>
In 1563 Elizabeth proposed her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Mary, without asking either of the two people concerned. Both proved unenthusiastic,<ref>Simon Adams: [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/8160 "Dudley, Robert, earl of Leicester (1532/3–1588)"] ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'' online edn. May 2008 (subscription required) Retrieved 3 April 2010</ref> and in 1565 Mary married [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]], who carried his own claim to the English throne. The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 by conspirators almost certainly led by [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]]. Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mary about the marriage, writing to her:
<blockquote>How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely.<ref>Letter to Mary, Queen of Scots, 23 June 1567." Quoted by Loades, 69–70.</ref></blockquote>
These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in [[Loch Leven Castle]]. The Scottish lords forced her to [[abdicate]] in favour of her son [[James VI]], who had been born in June 1566. James was taken to [[Stirling Castle]] to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped from [[Loch Leven (Kinross)|Loch Leven]] in 1568 but after another defeat fled across the border into England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch; but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned for the next nineteen years.<ref>Loades, 72–73.</ref>
===Catholic cause===
[[File:Sir Francis Walsingham by John De Critz the Elder.jpg|thumb|upright|Sir Francis Walsingham, Elizabeth's [[spymaster]], uncovered several plots against her life.]]
Mary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569 there was a major Catholic [[Rising of the North|rising in the North]]; the goal was to free Mary, marry her to [[Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk]], and put her on the English throne.<ref>Loades, 73</ref> After the rebels' defeat, over 750 of them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.<ref>Williams ''Norfolk'', p. 174</ref> In the belief that the revolt had been successful, [[Pope Pius V]] issued a [[papal bull|bull]] in 1570, titled ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'', which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be excommunicated and a [[Heresy|heretic]], releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.<ref name="McGrath, 69">McGrath, 69</ref><ref name="Collinson p. 67"/> Catholics who obeyed her orders were threatened with [[excommunication]].<ref name="McGrath, 69"/> The papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.<ref>Collinson pp. 67–68</ref> In 1581, to convert English subjects to Catholicism with "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a [[High treason|treasonable offence]], carrying the death penalty.<ref>Collinson p. 68</ref> From the 1570s [[missionary|missionary priests]] from continental [[seminaries]] came to England secretly in the cause of the "reconversion of England".<ref name="Collinson p. 67"/> Many suffered execution, engendering a cult of [[martyrdom]].<ref name="Collinson p. 67">Collinson p. 67</ref>
''Regnans in Excelsis'' gave English Catholics a strong incentive to look to Mary Stuart as the legitimate sovereign of England. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the [[Ridolfi Plot]] of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Norfolk, to lose his head) to the [[Babington Plot]] of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Sir [[Francis Walsingham]] and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her.<ref>Loades, 73.</ref> At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By late 1586, she had been persuaded to sanction her trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot.<ref>Guy, 483–484.</ref> Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that "the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm divers things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person."<ref>Loades, 78–79.</ref> On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at [[Fotheringhay Castle]], Northamptonshire.<ref>Guy, 1–11.</ref> After Mary's execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for the signed execution warrant to be dispatched, and blamed her Secretary, [[William Davison (diplomat)|William Davison]], for implementing it without her knowledge. The sincerity of Elizabeth's remorse and whether or not she wanted to delay the warrant have been called into question both by her contemporaries and later historians.<ref name=collinson/>
== Wars and overseas trade ==
Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the English occupation of [[Le Havre]] from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's [[Huguenot]] allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for [[Calais]], lost to France in January 1558.<ref>Frieda, 191.</ref> Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea.<ref name="loades61">Loades, 61.</ref> She knighted [[Francis Drake]] after his [[circumnavigation]] of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of [[piracy]] and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the queen had little control.<ref>Flynn and Spence, 126–128.</ref><ref>Somerset, 607–611.</ref>
===Netherlands===
[[File:Elzbieta przyjmuj ca ambasadoró.jpg|{{largethumb}}|Elizabeth receiving Dutch ambassadors, 1560s, attributed to [[Levina Teerlinc]]]]
After the occupation and loss of [[Le Havre]] in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant [[Dutch Revolt|Dutch rebels]] against Philip II.<ref name="haigh135">Haigh, 135.</ref> This followed the deaths in 1584 of the allies [[William the Silent]], Prince of Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to [[Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma]], Philip's governor of the [[Southern Netherlands|Spanish Netherlands]]. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] at [[Treaty of Joinville|Joinville]] undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, [[Henry III of France]], to counter [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] domination of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence along the [[English Channel|channel]] coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion.<ref name=haigh135/> The [[Siege of Antwerp (1584-1585)|siege of Antwerp]] in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch. The outcome was the [[Treaty of Nonsuch]] of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch.<ref>Strong and van Dorsten, 20–26</ref> The treaty marked the beginning of the [[Anglo–Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]], which lasted until the [[Treaty of London (1604)|Treaty of London]] in 1604.
The expedition was led by her former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland,<ref>Strong and van Dorsten, 43</ref> had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy".<ref>Strong and van Dorsten, 72</ref> He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]]. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands,<ref>Strong and van Dorsten, 50</ref> which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester:
<blockquote>We could never have imagined (had we not seen it fall out in experience) that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour ... And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril.<ref>Letter to Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, 10 February 1586, delivered by Sir [[Thomas Heneage]]. Loades, 94.</ref></blockquote>
Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State, Leicester having to stand nearby.<ref>Chamberlin, 263–264</ref> This public humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain,<ref>Elizabeth's ambassador in France was actively misleading her as to the true intentions of the Spanish king, who only tried to buy time for his great assault upon England: Parker, 193.</ref> irreversibly undermined his standing among the Dutch. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign.<ref>Haynes, 15; Strong and van Dorsten, 72–79</ref> Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587.
===Spanish Armada===
[[File:Nícholas-Hilliard-Elizabeth-I-Queen-of-England-c-1586-87.tif|thumb|left|Portrait from 1586–1587, by Nicholas Hilliard, around the time of the voyages of Sir [[Francis Drake]]]]
Meanwhile, Sir [[Francis Drake]] had undertaken a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships in the [[Caribbean]] in 1585 and 1586. In 1587 he made a [[Singeing the King of Spain's Beard|successful raid]] on [[Cadiz]], destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the ''Enterprise of England'',<ref>Parker, 193–194</ref> as Philip II had decided to take the war to England.<ref name="haigh138">Haigh, 138.</ref>
On 12 July 1588, the [[Spanish Armada]], a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. A combination of miscalculation,<ref>When the Spanish naval commander, the [[Alonso de Guzmán El Bueno, 7th Duke of Medina Sidonia|Duke of Medina Sidonia]], reached the coast near Calais, he found the Duke of Parma's troops unready and was forced to wait, giving the English the opportunity to launch their attack. Loades, 64.</ref> misfortune, and an attack of English [[fire ships]] on 29 July off [[Gravelines]], which dispersed the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]] ships to the northeast, defeated the Armada.<ref>Black, 349.</ref> The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the [[North Sea]], and then back south past the west coast of Ireland).<ref name="neale300">Neale, 300.</ref> Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command. He invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at [[Tilbury]] in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her [[Speech to the Troops at Tilbury|most famous speeches]]:
<blockquote>My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people ... I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm.<ref>Somerset, 591; Neale, 297–98.</ref></blockquote>
[[File:Elizabeth I (Armada Portrait).jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Portrait commemorating the defeat of the [[Spanish Armada]], depicted in the background. Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power. One of three known versions of the "[[Armada Portrait]]".]]
When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at [[Old St Paul's Cathedral|St Paul's Cathedral]] rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle.<ref name=neale300/> The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.<ref name=loades61/> However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain.<ref name = "xucglh">Black, 353.</ref> The Spanish still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained.<ref name=haigh138/> Sir [[Walter Raleigh]] claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:
<blockquote>If the late queen would have believed her men of war as she did her scribes, we had in her time beaten that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old times. But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness.<ref>Haigh, 145.</ref></blockquote>
Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,<ref>For example, C. H. Wilson castigates Elizabeth for half-heartedness in the war against Spain. Haigh, 183.</ref> Raleigh's verdict has more often been judged unfair. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory".<ref>Somerset, 655.</ref>
In 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the ''[[English Armada]]'' or ''Counter Armada'' with 23,375 men and 150 ships, led by Sir [[Francis Drake]] as admiral and Sir [[John Norreys]] as general. The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease<ref>R. O. Bucholz, Newton Key ''Early modern England 1485–1714: a narrative history'' (John Wiley and Sons, 2009). {{ISBN|978-1-4051-6275-3}} p.145</ref><ref>John Hampden ''Francis Drake, privateer: contemporary narratives and documents'' (Taylor & Francis, 1972). {{ISBN|978-0-8173-5703-0}} p.254</ref><ref name="Fernández Duro 1972 p.51">Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). ''Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón.'' Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Tomo III, Capítulo III. Madrid. p.51</ref> and 40 ships sunk or captured.<ref name="Fernández Duro 1972 p.51"/> The advantage England had won upon the destruction of the [[Spanish Armada]] was lost, and the Spanish victory marked a revival of [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]]'s naval power through the next decade.<ref>J. H. Elliott ''La Europa dividida (1559–1598)'' (Editorial Critica, 2002). {{ISBN|978-84-8432-669-4}} p.333</ref>
===France===
When the Protestant [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.<ref name="haigh142">Haigh, 142.</ref> [[Peregrine Bertie, 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby|Lord Willoughby]], largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops. In 1591, the campaign of [[John Norreys]], who led 3,000 men to [[Brittany]], was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon, north-west France, in May 1591. In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]], to help Henry IV in besieging [[Rouen]]. The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April.<ref>Haigh, 143.</ref> As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. "Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do," she wrote of Essex, "we are ignorant".<ref>Haigh, 143–144.</ref>
===Ireland===
{{main|Tudor conquest of Ireland}}
[[File:England Queen Elizabeth I sixpence 1593.jpg|{{largethumb}}|Silver [[Sixpence (British coin)|sixpence]], struck 1593, identifying Elizabeth as "[[by the Grace of God]] Queen of England, [[English claim to the French throne|France]], and Ireland"]]
Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous,<ref>One observer wrote that [[Ulster]], for example, was "as unknown to the English here as the most inland part of Virginia". Somerset, 667.</ref> Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England.<ref>Loades, 55</ref> In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued [[scorched earth|scorched-earth]] tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. During a revolt in [[Munster]] led by [[Gerald FitzGerald, 15th Earl of Desmond]], in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. The poet and colonist [[Edmund Spenser]] wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same".<ref>Somerset, 668.</ref> Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, "that rude and barbarous nation", be well treated; but she showed no remorse when force and bloodshed were deemed necessary.<ref>Somerset, 668–669.</ref>
Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the [[Nine Years' War (Ireland)|Nine Years' War]], a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Spain]], who backed the rebel leader, [[Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone]].<ref>Loades, 98.</ref> In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent [[Essex in Ireland|Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]], to put the revolt down. To her frustration,<ref>In a letter of 19 July 1599 to Essex, Elizabeth wrote: "For what can be more true (if things be rightly examined) than that your two month's journey has brought in never a capital rebel against whom it had been worthy to have adventured one thousand men". Loades, 98.</ref> he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. He was replaced by [[Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy|Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy]], who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death.<ref>Loades, 98–99.</ref> Soon afterwards, a peace treaty was signed between England and Spain.
===Russia===
Elizabeth continued to maintain the diplomatic relations with the [[Tsardom of Russia]] originally established by her half-brother. She often wrote to [[Ivan the Terrible]] on amicable terms, though the Tsar was often annoyed by her focus on commerce rather than on the possibility of a military alliance. The Tsar even proposed to her once, and during his later reign, asked for a guarantee to be granted asylum in England should his rule be jeopardised.
Upon Ivan's death, he was succeeded by his simple-minded son [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor]]. Unlike his father, Feodor had no enthusiasm in maintaining exclusive trading rights with England. Feodor declared his kingdom open to all foreigners, and dismissed the English ambassador Sir [[Jerome Bowes]], whose pomposity had been tolerated by Ivan. Elizabeth sent a new ambassador, Dr. Giles Fletcher, to demand from the regent [[Boris Godunov]] that he convince the Tsar to reconsider. The negotiations failed, due to Fletcher addressing Feodor with two of his many titles omitted. Elizabeth continued to appeal to Feodor in half appealing, half reproachful letters. She proposed an alliance, something which she had refused to do when offered one by Feodor's father, but was turned down.<ref>''Russia and Britain'' by Crankshaw, Edward, published by Collins, ''The Nations and Britain'' series</ref>
===Muslim states===
[[File:MoorishAmbassador to Elizabeth I.jpg|thumb|upright|Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud was the Moorish ambassador to Elizabeth in 1600.]]
Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the [[Barbary states]] during the rule of Elizabeth.<ref name="vaughan">{{cite book| author = Virginia Mason Vaughan| title = Performing Blackness on English Stages, 1500–1800| url = https://books.google.com/?id=19_SIlq3ZvsC&pg=PA57| year = 2005| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-84584-7| page = 57 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book| author = Allardyce Nicoll| title = Shakespeare Survey With Index 1–10| url = https://books.google.com/?id=OeakAOji13EC&pg=PA90| year = 2002| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-52347-9| page = 90 }}</ref> England established a trading relationship with [[Morocco]] in opposition to Spain, selling armour, ammunition, timber, and metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar, in spite of a [[Pope|Papal]] ban.<ref>{{cite book| author = Emily Carroll Bartels| title = Speaking of the Moor |page=24| url = https://books.google.com/?id=S6Z9J0OJmmQC&pg=PA24| year = 2008| publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press| isbn = 978-0-8122-4076-4 }}</ref> In 1600, [[Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud]], the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler [[Ahmad al-Mansur|Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur]], visited England as an ambassador to the court of Queen Elizabeth I,<ref name="vaughan"/><ref>[[University of Birmingham]] Collections [http://mimsy.bham.ac.uk/detail.php?t=objects&type=related&kv=101212 Mimsy.bham.ac.uk] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228082016/http://mimsy.bham.ac.uk/detail.php?t=objects&type=related&kv=101212 |date=28 February 2009 }}</ref> to negotiate an [[Anglo-Moroccan alliance]] against Spain.<ref name="tate.org.uk">[[Tate Gallery]] exhibition "East-West: Objects between cultures", [http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-britain/exhibition/east-west-objects-between-cultures/east-west-room-1 Tate.org.uk]</ref><ref name="vaughan"/> Elizabeth "agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish".<ref name="Kupperman39">Kupperman, 39</ref> Discussions, however, remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy.<ref>Nicoll, p.96</ref>
Diplomatic relations were also established with the [[Ottoman Empire]] with the chartering of the [[Levant Company]] and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the [[Ottoman Porte|Porte]], [[William Harborne]], in 1578.<ref name=Kupperman39/> For the first time, a Treaty of Commerce was signed in 1580.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&pg=PA353 |title=The Encyclopedia of world history by Peter N. Stearns, p. 353 |accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> Numerous envoys were dispatched in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan [[Murad III]].<ref name=Kupperman39/> In one correspondence, Murad entertained the notion that [[Islam and Protestantism]] had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire.<ref>Kupperman, 40</ref> To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunitions to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with [[Murad III]] during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy.<ref>Kupperman, 41</ref>
== Later years ==
The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted until the end of her reign.<ref name = "xucglh"/> The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell.<ref name="haigh">Haigh, 155.</ref><ref>Black, 355–356.</ref><ref name = "xucglh"/> During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders.<ref>Black, 355.</ref> To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda.<ref name=haigh/> In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her.<ref>This criticism of Elizabeth was noted by Elizabeth's early biographers [[William Camden]] and John Clapham. For a detailed account of such criticisms and of Elizabeth's "government by illusion", see chapter 8, "The Queen and the People", Haigh, 149–169.</ref><ref>John Cramsie, in reviewing the recent scholarship in 2003, argued "the period 1585–1603 is now recognised by scholars as distinctly more troubled than the first half of Elizabeth's long reign. Costly wars against Spain and the Irish, involvement in the Netherlands, socio-economic distress, and an authoritarian turn by the regime all cast a pall over Gloriana's final years, underpinning a weariness with the queen's rule and open criticism of her government and its failures." {{citation|first=John|last=Cramsie|title=The Changing Reputations of Elizabeth I and James VI & I|url=http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/334|work=Reviews and History: Covering books and digital resources across all fields of history|type=review no. 334|date=June 2003}}</ref>
[[File:Devereaux essex4.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Robert Devereaux, 2nd Earl of Essex|Lord Essex was a favourite of Elizabeth I despite his petulance and irresponsibility.]]
One of the causes for this "second reign" of Elizabeth, as it is sometimes called,<ref>Adams, 7; Hammer, 1; Collinson, 89</ref> was the changed character of Elizabeth's governing body, the [[privy council]] in the 1590s. A new generation was in power. With the exception of Lord Burghley, the most important politicians had died around 1590: the Earl of Leicester in 1588; Sir Francis Walsingham in 1590; and Sir [[Christopher Hatton]] in 1591.<ref>Collinson, 89</ref> Factional strife in the government, which had not existed in a noteworthy form before the 1590s,<ref>Doran ''Monarchy'', 216</ref> now became its hallmark.<ref>Hammer, 1–2</ref> A bitter rivalry arose between the Earl of Essex and [[Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury|Robert Cecil]], son of Lord Burghley and their respective adherents, and the struggle for the most powerful positions in the state marred politics.<ref>Hammer, 1, 9</ref> The queen's personal authority was lessening,<ref>Hammer, 9–10</ref> as is shown in the 1594 affair of Dr. Lopez, her trusted physician. When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent his execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt.<ref>Lacey, 117–120</ref>
During the last years of her reign, Elizabeth came to rely on the granting of monopolies as a cost-free system of patronage, rather than asking Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war.<ref>A Patent of Monopoly gave the holder control over an aspect of trade or manufacture. See Neale, 382.</ref> The practice soon led to [[price fixing|price-fixing]], the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment.<ref>Williams ''Elizabeth'', 208.</ref> This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601.<ref>Black, 192–194.</ref> In her famous "[[Golden Speech]]" of 30 November 1601 at [[Whitehall Palace]] to a deputation of 140 members, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses, and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions:<ref>Neale, 383–384.</ref>
<blockquote>Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error, in which, by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen, what thank they deserve, we know, though you may guess. And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us!<ref>Loades, 86.</ref></blockquote>
[[File:Elizabeth I portrait, Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger c.1595.jpg|thumb|alt=Elizabeth I in later years|Portrait of Elizabeth I attributed to [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger]] or his studio, c. 1595.]]
This same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England.<ref>Black, 239.</ref> The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth's reign, with [[John Lyly]]'s ''Euphues'' and [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Shepheardes Calender]]'' in 1578. During the 1590s, some of the great names of [[English literature]] entered their maturity, including [[William Shakespeare]] and [[Christopher Marlowe]]. During this period and into the [[Jacobean era]] that followed, the English theatre reached its highest peaks.<ref>Black, 239–245.</ref> The notion of a great [[Elizabethan era]] depends largely on the builders, dramatists, poets, and musicians who were active during Elizabeth's reign. They owed little directly to the queen, who was never a major patron of the arts.<ref>Haigh, 176.</ref>
As Elizabeth aged her image gradually changed. She was portrayed as [[Belphoebe]] or [[Astraea (mythology)|Astraea]], and after the Armada, as [[Gloriana]], the eternally youthful [[Faerie Queene]] of [[Edmund Spenser]]'s poem. Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic [[iconography|icons]] that made her look much younger than she was. In fact, her skin had been scarred by [[smallpox]] in 1562, leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics.<ref name="loades92">Loades, 92.</ref> Her love of sweets and fear of dentists contributed to severe tooth decay and loss to such an extent that foreign ambassadors had a hard time understanding her speech.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/11353064/The-Tudors-had-bad-teeth-What-rot.html "The Tudors had bad teeth? What rot!"], ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', 18 January 2015. Retrieved on 28 May 2016.</ref> André Hurault de Maisse, Ambassador Extraordinary from Henry IV of France, reported an audience with the queen, during which he noticed, "her teeth are very yellow and unequal ... and on the left side less than on the right. Many of them are missing, so that one cannot understand her easily when she speaks quickly." Yet he added, "her figure is fair and tall and graceful in whatever she does; so far as may be she keeps her dignity, yet humbly and graciously withal."<ref>De Maisse: a journal of all that was accomplished by Monsieur De Maisse, ambassador in England from King Henri IV to Queen Elizabeth, anno domini 1597, Nonesuch Press, 1931, pp. 25–26</ref> Sir Walter Raleigh called her "a lady whom time had surprised".<ref>Haigh, 171.</ref>
The more Elizabeth's beauty faded, the more her [[Court (royal)|courtiers]] praised it.<ref name=loades92/> Elizabeth was happy to play the part,<ref>"The metaphor of drama is an appropriate one for Elizabeth's reign, for her power was an illusion—and an illusion was her power. Like Henry IV of France, she projected an image of herself which brought stability and prestige to her country. By constant attention to the details of her total performance, she kept the rest of the cast on their toes and kept her own part as queen." Haigh, 179.</ref> but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance. She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, who was Leicester's stepson and took liberties with her for which she forgave him.<ref name = "Lds">Loades, 93.</ref> She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility. After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599, Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies.<ref>Loades, 97.</ref> In February 1601, the earl tried to raise a rebellion in London. He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February. Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events. An observer wrote in 1602: "Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex."<ref>Black, 410.</ref>
== Death ==
Elizabeth's senior adviser, [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley]], died on 4 August 1598. His political mantle passed to his son, [[Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury|Robert Cecil]], who soon became the leader of the government.<ref>After Essex's downfall, James VI of Scotland referred to Cecil as "king there in effect". Croft, 48.</ref> One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a [[succession to Elizabeth I of England|smooth succession]]. Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret.<ref>Cecil wrote to James, "The subject itself is so perilous to touch amongst us as it setteth a mark upon his head forever that hatcheth such a bird". Willson, 154.</ref> He therefore entered into a [[Secret correspondence of James VI|coded negotiation]] with James VI of Scotland, who had a strong but unrecognised claim.<ref>James VI of Scotland was a great-great-grandson of Henry VII of England, and thus Elizabeth's first cousin twice removed, since Henry VII was Elizabeth's paternal grandfather.</ref> Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and "secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions".<ref>Willson, 154.</ref> The advice worked. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: "So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort".<ref>Willson, 155.</ref> In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with "unmistakable if veiled phrases".<ref>Neale, 385.</ref>
[[File:Funeral Elisabeth.jpg|thumb|{{largethumb}}|Elizabeth's funeral cortège, 1603, with banners of her royal ancestors]]
The Queen's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602, when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression. In February 1603, the death of [[Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham]], the niece of her cousin and close friend [[Catherine Carey|Lady Knollys]], came as a particular blow. In March, Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a "settled and unremovable melancholy", and sat motionless on a cushion for hours on end.<ref>Black, 411.</ref> When Robert Cecil told her that she must go to bed, she snapped: "Must is not a word to use to princes, little man." She died on 24 March 1603 at [[Richmond Palace]], between two and three in the morning. A few hours later, Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James King of England.<ref>Black, 410–411.</ref>
While it has become normative to record the death of the Queen as occurring in 1603, following [[Calendar (New Style) Act 1750|English calendar reform]] in the 1750s, at the time England observed [[New Year's Day]] on 25 March, commonly known as [[Lady Day]]. Thus Elizabeth died on the last day of the year 1602 in the old calendar. The modern convention is to use the old calendar for the date and month while using the new for the year.<ref>{{cite book | title=1603: The Death of Queen Elizabeth, the Return of the Black Plague, the Rise of Shakespeare, Piracy, Witchcraft and the Birth of the Stuart Era | publisher=St. Martin's Press | author=Lee, Christopher | year=2004 | page=viii | isbn=978-0-312-32139-0}}</ref>
[[File:Elizabeth I of England grave (left) 2013 crop2.jpg|thumb|left|Elizabeth as shown on her tomb at Westminster Abbey]]
Elizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to [[Palace of Whitehall|Whitehall]], on a barge lit with torches. At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to [[Westminster Abbey]] on a [[hearse]] drawn by four horses hung with black velvet. In the words of the chronicler [[John Stow]]:
<blockquote>Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets, houses, windows, leads and gutters, that came out to see the [[obsequy]], and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin, there was such a general sighing, groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man.<ref>Weir, ''Elizabeth'', 486.</ref></blockquote>
Elizabeth was interred in Westminster Abbey, in a tomb shared with her half-sister, Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb, "Regno consortes & urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis", translates to "Consorts in realm and tomb, here we sleep, Elizabeth and Mary, sisters, in hope of resurrection".<ref>{{cite book|last=Stanley|first=Arthur Penrhyn|authorlink=Arthur Penrhyn Stanley|title=Historical memorials of Westminster Abbey|year=1868|publisher=John Murray|location=London|page=178|chapter=The royal tombs|oclc=24223816}}</ref>
== Legacy ==
{{further|Cultural depictions of Elizabeth I of England}}
[[File:Elizabeth-I-Allegorical-Po.jpg|thumb|Elizabeth I, painted after 1620, during the first revival of interest in her reign. Time sleeps on her right and Death looks over her left shoulder; two [[putto|putti]] hold the crown above her head.<ref>Strong, 163–164.</ref>]]
Elizabeth was lamented by many of her subjects, but others were relieved at her death.<ref name="Ld">Loades, 100–101.</ref> Expectations of King James started high but then declined, so by the 1620s there was a nostalgic revival of the cult of Elizabeth.<ref name="somerset726">Somerset, 726.</ref> Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age. James was depicted as a Catholic sympathiser, presiding over a corrupt court.<ref>Strong, 164.</ref> The triumphalist image that Elizabeth had cultivated towards the end of her reign, against a background of factionalism and military and economic difficulties,<ref>Haigh, 170.</ref> was taken at face value and her reputation inflated. [[Godfrey Goodman]], Bishop of Gloucester, recalled: "When we had experience of a Scottish government, the Queen did seem to revive. Then was her memory much magnified."<ref>Weir, 488.</ref> Elizabeth's reign became idealised as a time when crown, church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance.<ref>Dobson and Watson, 257.</ref>
The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential.<ref>Haigh, 175, 182.</ref> Her memory was also revived during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion.<ref>Dobson and Watson, 258.</ref> In the [[Victorian era]], the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day,<ref name=Ld/><ref>The age of Elizabeth was redrawn as one of [[chivalry]], epitomised by courtly encounters between the queen and sea-dog "heroes" such as Drake and Raleigh. Some Victorian narratives, such as Raleigh laying his cloak before the queen or presenting her with a potato, remain part of the myth. Dobson and Watson, 258.</ref> and in the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat.<ref>Haigh, 175.</ref><ref>In his preface to the 1952 reprint of ''Queen Elizabeth I'', J. E. Neale observed: "The book was written before such words as "ideological", "fifth column", and "cold war" became current; and it is perhaps as well that they are not there. But the ideas are present, as is the idea of romantic leadership of a nation in peril, because they were present in Elizabethan times".</ref> Historians of that period, such as [[J. E. Neale]] (1934) and [[A. L. Rowse]] (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress.<ref>Haigh, 182.</ref> Neale and Rowse also idealised the Queen personally: she always did everything right; her more unpleasant traits were ignored or explained as signs of stress.<ref>Kenyon, 207</ref>
Recent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth.<ref>Haigh, 183.</ref> Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada, and for successful raids against the Spanish, such as those on Cádiz in 1587 and 1596, but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea.<ref name=haigh142/> In Ireland, Elizabeth's forces ultimately prevailed, but their tactics stain her record.<ref>Black, 408–409.</ref> Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies. She offered very limited aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad.<ref>Haigh, 142–147, 174–177.</ref>
Elizabeth established an English church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today.<ref>Loades, 46–50.</ref><ref>Weir, ''Elizabeth'', 487.</ref><ref>Hogge, 9–10.</ref> Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all practices of Catholic origin from the Church of England.<ref>The new state religion was condemned at the time in such terms as "a cloaked papistry, or mingle mangle". Somerset, 102.</ref> Historians note that in her day, strict Protestants regarded the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement|Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559]] as a compromise.<ref>Haigh, 45–46, 177.</ref><ref>Black, 14–15.</ref> In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish, as [[Francis Bacon]] put it, to "make windows into men's hearts and secret thoughts".<ref>Williams ''Elizabeth'', 50.</ref><ref>Haigh, 42.</ref>
Though Elizabeth followed a largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad. "She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island," marvelled [[Pope Sixtus V]], "and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by [[Holy Roman Empire|the Empire]], by all".<ref name="somerset1">Somerset, 727.</ref> Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence and sense of sovereignty, as [[Christendom]] fragmented.<ref name=somerset726/><ref>Hogge, 9''n''.</ref><ref>Loades, 1.</ref> Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent.<ref>As Elizabeth's [[Lord Keeper of the Great Seal|Lord Keeper]], Sir [[Nicholas Bacon (courtier)|Nicholas Bacon]], put it on her behalf to parliament in 1559, the queen "is not, nor ever meaneth to be, so wedded to her own will and fantasy that for the satisfaction thereof she will do anything ... to bring any bondage or servitude to her people, or give any just occasion to them of any inward grudge whereby any tumults or stirs might arise as hath done of late days". Starkey ''Elizabeth: Woman'', 7.</ref> She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth—a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow. Some historians have called her lucky;<ref name="somerset1"/> she believed that God was protecting her.<ref>Somerset, 75–76.</ref> Priding herself on being "mere English",<ref>Edwards, 205.</ref> Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice, and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule.<ref>Starkey ''Elizabeth: Woman'', 6–7.</ref> In a prayer, she offered thanks to God that:
<blockquote>[At a time] when wars and seditions with grievous persecutions have vexed almost all kings and countries round about me, my reign hath been peacable, and my realm a receptacle to thy afflicted Church. The love of my people hath appeared firm, and the devices of my enemies frustrate.<ref name="somerset1"/></blockquote>
==Family tree==
<div style="overflow:auto;">
{{family tree/start|align=center}}
{{familytree | | |Tom|v|Betty| | | | | | | | | | | |Henry|v|Lisa| | |Lisa=[[Elizabeth of York]]|Henry=[[Henry VII of England]]|Tom=[[Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire]]|Betty=[[Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire|Elizabeth Howard]]}}
{{familytree | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|.| }}
{{familytree | | |MaryB| |Anne|-|v|-|-|-|Henry| | | | | |Marge| | | |Mary| |Anne=[[Anne Boleyn]]|Henry=[[Henry VIII of England]]|Mary=[[Mary Tudor, Queen of France|Mary]]|Marge=[[Margaret Tudor|Margaret]]|MaryB=[[Mary Boleyn]]}}
{{familytree | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | |!| | | |!| |!| | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | |!}}
{{familytree |Kate| |Henry| |Bess| |Mary| |Eddy| |Jim| |Marge| |Fran|Mary=[[Mary I of England]]|Phil=[[Philip II of Spain]]|Bess='''Elizabeth I of England'''|Eddy=[[Edward VI of England]]|Fran=[[Frances Grey, Duchess of Suffolk|Frances Brandon]]|Jim=[[James V of Scotland]]|Marge=[[Margaret Douglas]]|Henry=[[Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon]]|Kate=[[Catherine Carey]]}}
{{familytree | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!}}
{{familytree | | | | |Kate| | | | | | | | | | | | | |Mary|v|Henry| |Jane| | | | | |Jane=[[Lady Jane Grey|Jane Grey]]|Mary=[[Mary, Queen of Scots]]|Henry=[[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]]|Kate=[[Catherine Howard, Countess of Nottingham|Catherine Carey]]}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Jim| |Jim=[[James VI and I]]}}
{{Family tree/end}}
</div>
== See also ==
* [[Early modern Britain]]
* [[English Renaissance]]
* [[Portraiture of Elizabeth I of England]]
* [[Inventory of Elizabeth I of England]]
* [[Protestant Reformation]]
* [[Royal Arms of England]]
* [[Royal eponyms in Canada#Queen Elizabeth I|Royal eponyms in Canada for Queen Elizabeth I]]
* [[Royal Standards of England]]
* [[Tudor period]]
* [[Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|20em}}
== References ==
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{{refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* Beem, Charles. ''The Foreign Relations of Elizabeth I'' (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Foreign-Relations-Elizabeth-Queenship-Power/dp/0230112145/ excerpt and text search]
* {{cite book| last = Bridgen| first = Susan| title = New Worlds, Lost Worlds: The Rule of the Tudors, 1485–1603| year = 2001| publisher = [[Viking Penguin]]| location = New York| isbn = 978-0-670-89985-2 }}
* Hodges, J. P. ''The Nature of the Lion: Elizabeth I and Our Anglican Heritage'' (London: Faith Press, 1962).
* Jones, Norman. ''The Birth of the Elizabethan Age: England in the 1560s'' (Blackwell, 1993)
* [[Wallace T. MacCaffrey|MacCaffrey Wallace T.]] ''Elizabeth I'' (1993), political biography summarising his multivolume study:
** MacCaffrey Wallace T. ''The Shaping of the Elizabethan Regime: Elizabethan Politics, 1558–1572'' (1969)
** MacCaffrey Wallace T. ''Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, 1572–1588'' (1988)
** MacCaffrey Wallace T. ''Elizabeth I: War and Politics, 1588–1603'' (1994)
* McLaren, A. N. ''Political Culture in the Reign of Elizabeth I: Queen and Commonwealth, 1558–1585'' (Cambridge University Press, 1999) [https://www.amazon.com/Political-Culture-Reign-Elizabeth-Commonwealth/dp/0521024838/ excerpt and text search]
* Palliser, D. M. ''The Age of Elizabeth: England Under the Later Tudors, 1547–1603'' (1983) survey of social and economic history
* {{cite book| author = Ridley, Jasper Godwin | title = Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue| year = 1989| publisher = Fromm International| isbn = 978-0-88064-110-4 }}
* [[R. B. Wernham|Wernham, R. B.]] ''Before the Armada: the growth of English foreign policy, 1485–1588'' (1966), a standard history of foreign policy
===Primary sources and early histories===
* {{cite book| author = Elizabeth I| title = Elizabeth I: Collected Works| year = 2002| publisher = University of Chicago Press| isbn = 978-0-226-50465-0 }}
* Susan M. Felch, ed. ''Elizabeth I and Her Age'' (Norton Critical Editions) (2009); primary and secondary sources, with an emphasis on literature
* [[William Camden]]. ''History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth''. Wallace T. MacCaffrey (ed). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, selected chapters, 1970 edition. {{OCLC|59210072}}.
* William Camden. [http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/camden/ ''Annales Rerum Gestarum Angliae et Hiberniae Regnante Elizabetha.''] (1615 and 1625.) Hypertext edition, with English translation. Dana F. Sutton (ed.), 2000. Retrieved 7 December 2007.
* Clapham, John. ''Elizabeth of England''. E. P. Read and [[Conyers Read]] (eds). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951. {{OCLC|1350639}}.
===Historiography and memory===
* Carlson, Eric Josef. "Teaching Elizabeth Tudor with Movies: Film, Historical Thinking, and the Classroom," ''Sixteenth Century Journal,'' Summer 2007, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp. 419–440
* Collinson, Patrick. "Elizabeth I and the verdicts of history," ''Historical Research,'' Nov 2003, Vol. 76 Issue 194, pp. 469–491
* Doran, Susan, and Thomas S. Freeman, eds. ''The Myth of Elizabeth.''(2003).
* Greaves, Richard L., ed. ''Elizabeth I, Queen of England'' (1974), excerpts from historians
* Haigh, Christopher, ed. ''The Reign of Elizabeth I'' (1984), essays by scholars
* Howard, Maurice. "Elizabeth I: A Sense Of Place In Stone, Print And Paint," ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society,'' Dec 2004, Vol. 14 Issue 1, pp. 261–268
* Hulme, Harold. "Elizabeth I and Her Parliaments: The Work of Sir John Neale," ''Journal of Modern History'' Vol. 30, No. 3 (Sept. 1958), pp. 236–240 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1872838 in JSTOR]
* Montrose, Louis. ''The Subject of Elizabeth: Authority, Gender, and Representation.'' (2006).
* Watkins, John. ''Representing Elizabeth in Stuart England: Literature, History, Sovereignty'' (2002)
* {{cite book| author = Michael Dobson|author2=Nicola Jane Watson| title = England's Elizabeth: An Afterlife in Fame and Fantasy| year = 2002| publisher = Oxford University Press, USA| isbn = 978-0-19-818377-8 }}
* Woolf, D. R. "Two Elizabeths? James I and the Late Queen's Famous Memory," ''Canadian Journal of History,'' Aug 1985, Vol. 20 Issue 2, pp. 167–191
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{wikisource author}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category |Elizabeth I of England}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2015-06-20|En-Elizabeth I of England-article1.ogg|En-Elizabeth I of England-article2.ogg}}
* {{UK National Archives ID|F52159}}
* {{NPG name|name=Queen Elizabeth I}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id=England+and+Wales.+Sovereign | name=Elizabeth I}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Elizabeth I" OR "Queen Elizabeth" OR "Good Queen Bess" OR "Virgin Queen" OR (Elizabeth AND "1533–1603") )}}
* {{Librivox author |id=589}}
{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Tudor]]|7 September|1533|24 March|1603}}
{{s-reg}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Mary I]] '''and''' [[Philip II of Spain|Philip]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of English monarchs|Queen of England]] and [[King of Ireland|Ireland]]|years=1558–1603}}
{{S-aft|after=[[James I]]}}
{{S-end}}
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