Estrepsípteros: Diferenzas entre revisións

 

Os ovos de estrepsípteros eclosionan dentro da femia, e a [[planidio|larva planidio]] (''planidium'') pode moverse libremente dentro do [[hemocele]] da femia, o cal só se dá nestes animais. A femia ten unha canle de cría que comunica co exterior, e as larvas escapan por ela.<ref>[[Ross Piper|Piper, Ross]] (2007), ''Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals'', [[Greenwood Press (publisher)|Greenwood Press]].</ref> As larvas son moi activas, xa que só teñen un tempo bastante limitado para encontrar un hóspede antes de que esgoten as súas reservas alimenticias. Estaslarvas do primeiro [[instar]] teñen [[stemmata]] (ollos simples dunha soa lente), e unha vez que conseguen aferrarse á superficie dun hóspede, entran dentro del segregando [[encima]]s que abrandan a cutícula, xeramente na rexión abdominal do hóspede. Algunhas especies entran nos ovos do hóspede. As larvas de ''Stichotrema dallatorreanurn'' de [[Papúa Nova Guinea]] entran nos seus hóspedes ortópteros polo trso (pé).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kathirithamby | first1 = Jeyaraney | year = 2001 | title = Stand tall and they still get you in your Achilles foot-pad | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences | volume = 268 | issue = 1483| pages = 2287–2289 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2001.1810}}</ref> Unha vez dentro do hóspede, sofren [[hipermetamorfose]] e convértense nunha fase larvaria menos móbil e sen patas. Inducen ao hóspede a poducir unha estrutura similar a unha bolsa dentro da cal elas se alimentan e crecen. Esta estrutura, feita de tecidos do hóspede, protéxeas das defensas inmunitarias do hóspede. As larvas pasan por catro instars máis e en cada [[muda (bioloxía)|muda]] ten lugar o despegamento da cutícula vella, pero non a desprenden ("[[apólise]] sen [[écdise]]"), o que fai que se formen múltiples capas de cutícula arredor da larva.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kathirithamby | first1 = Jeyaraney | last2 = Ross | first2 = Larry D. | last3 = Johnston | first3 = J. Spencer | year = 2003 | title = Masquerading as Self? Endoparasitic Strepsiptera (Insecta) Enclose Themselves in Host-Derived Epidermal Bag | url = | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 100 | issue = 13| pages = 7655–7659 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1131999100}}</ref> As larvas macho producen pupas despois da última muda, pero as femias fanse directamente adultos neoténicos.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Beani, Laura |year=2006|title= Crazy wasps: when parasites manipulate the ''Polistes'' phenotype| journal= Annales Zoologici Fennici |volume=43| pages=564–574 |url=http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anz43-free/anz43-564.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author = Kathirithamby, J |year=2000| title= Morphology of the female Myrmecolacidae (Strepsiptera) including the ''apron'', and an associated structure analogous to the peritrophic matrix| journal= Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume= 128| pages=269–287| doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2000.tb00164.x}}</ref> A cor e forma do abdome do hóspede pode cambiar e o hóspede xeralmente queda estéril. Os parasitos despois sofren a [[pupación]] para converterse en adultos. Os machos adultos saen do corpo dos seus hóspedes, mentres que as femias permanecen dentro. As femias poden chegar a ocupar o 90% do volume abdominal dos seus hóspedes.<ref name=insencyc/>

 

 

 

== Clasificación ==

The order, named by [[William Kirby (entomologist)|William Kirby]] in 1813, is named for the [[Hindwing|hind wings]], which are held at a twisted angle when at rest ([[Greek language|Greek]] στρεψι-, combining form of {{lang|el|[[wikt:στρέφω|στρέϕειν]]}}, to twist; and {{lang|el|[[wikt:πτερόν|πτερόν]]}}, wing). The fore wings are reduced to [[halteres]] (and initially were thought to be dried and twisted).

Strepsiptera are an enigma to taxonomists. Originally, they were believed to be the sister group to the beetle families [[Meloidae]] and [[Ripiphoridae]], which have similar parasitic development and forewing reduction; early molecular research suggested their inclusion as a sister group to the [[flies]],<ref name=insencyc/> in a clade called the halteria,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Whiting | first1 = Michael F. | year = 1998 | title = Long-Branch Distraction and the Strepsiptera | url = http://whitinglab.byu.edu/PDF/longbranchstrep.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Systematic Biology | volume = 47 | issue = 1| pages = 134–138 | doi=10.1080/106351598261076}}</ref> which have one pair of the wings modified into halteres,<ref name=strepprob>{{cite journal | last1 = Whiting | first1 = Michael F. | last2 = Carpenter | first2 = James C. | last3 = Wheeler | first3 = Quentin D. | last4 = Wheeler | first4 = Ward C. | year = 1997 | title = The Stresiptera Problem: Phylogeny of the Holometabolous Insect Orders Inferred from 18S and 28S Ribosomal DNA Sequences and Morphology | url = | journal = Systematic Biology | volume = 46 | issue = 1| pages = 1–68 | doi=10.2307/2413635}}</ref> and failed to support their relationship to the beetles.<ref name=strepprob/> Further molecular studies, however, suggested they are outside the clade Mecopterida (containing the Diptera and Lepidoptera), but found no strong evidence for affinity with any other extant group.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bonneton | first1 = F. | last2 = Brunet | first2 = F. G. | last3 = Kathirithamby | first3 = J. | last4 = Laudet | first4 = V. | year = 2006 | title = The rapid divergence of the ecdysone receptor is a synapomorphy for Mecopterida that clarifies the Strepsiptera problem | url = | journal = Insect Molecular Biology | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 351–362 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2583.2006.00654.x | pmid=16756554}}</ref> Study of their evolutionary position has been problematic due to difficulties in phylogenetic analysis arising from [[long branch attraction]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Huelsenbeck | first1 = John P | year = 1998 | title = Systematic Bias in Phylogenetic Analysis: Is the Strepsiptera Problem Solved? | url = | journal = Systematic Biology | volume = 47 | issue = 3| pages = 519–537 }}</ref> The most basal strepsipteran is the fossil ''[[Protoxenos janzeni]]'' discovered in [[Baltic amber]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pohl | first1 = H. | last2 = Beutel | first2 = R.G. | last3 = Kinzelbach | first3 = R. | year = 2005 | title = Protoxenidae fam. nov. (Insecta, Strepsiptera) from Baltic amber—a 'missing link' in strepsipteran phylogeny | url = | journal = Zoologica Scripta | volume = 34 | issue = | pages = 57–69 | doi=10.1111/j.1463-6409.2005.00173.x}}</ref> while the most basal living strepsipteran is ''[[Bahiaxenos relictus]]'', the sole member of the family [[Bahiaxenidae]].<ref name = Bravoetal>{{cite journal | last1 = Bravo | first1 = Pohl | last2 = Silva-Neto | first2 = | last3 = Beutel | first3 = | year = 2009 | title = Bahiaxenidae, a "living fossil" and a new family of Strepsiptera (Hexapoda) discovered in Brazil | url = | journal = Cladistics | volume = 25 | issue = | pages = 614–623 | doi = 10.1111/j.1096-0031.2009.00264.x }}</ref> The earliest known strepsipteran fossil is that of ''[[Cretostylops engeli]]'', discovered in middle Cretaceous amber from [[Myanmar]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grimaldi | first1 = D. | last2 = Kathirithamby | first2 = J. | last3 = Schawaroch | first3 = V. | year = 2005 | title = Strepsiptera and triungula in Cretaceous amber | url = | journal = Insect Systematics & Evolution | volume = 36 | issue = | pages = 1–20 | doi=10.1163/187631205788912787}}</ref>