Lingua chinesa: Diferenzas entre revisións
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In [[mainland China]] and Taiwan, [[diglossia]] has been a common feature: {{citation needed span|it is common for a Chinese to be able to speak two or even three varieties of the Sinitic languages (or "dialects") together with Standard Chinese.|date=June 2015}} For example, in addition to ''putonghua'', a resident of [[Shanghai]] might speak [[Shanghainese dialect|Shanghainese]]; and, if he or she grew up elsewhere, then he or she may also be likely to be fluent in the particular dialect of that local area. A native of [[Guangzhou]] may speak both Cantonese and ''putonghua''. In addition to Mandarin, most [[Taiwanese people|Taiwanese]] also speak [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Minnan]], [[Hakka language|Hakka]] or an [[Austronesian language]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Klöter |first=Henning |date=2004 |journal=China Perspectives |volume=56 |issn=1996-4617 |url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/442 |title=Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras |accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> A Taiwanese may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from Mandarin and other [[Taiwanese languages]], and this mixture is considered normal in daily or informal speech.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Kuo |first=Yun-Hsuan |date=2005 |title=New dialect formation : the case of Taiwanese Mandarin |type=PhD |trans-title= |chapter= |publisher=University of Essex |docket= |oclc= |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/YUN-HSUAN_KUO |access-date=26 June 2015}}</ref>
== Escrita ==
{{AP|Escrita chinesa}}
The relationship between the Chinese spoken and written language is rather complex. Its spoken varieties evolved at different rates, while written Chinese itself has changed much less. [[Classical Chinese]] [[literature]] began in the [[Spring and Autumn period]], although written records have been discovered as far back as the 14th to 11th centuries BCE [[Shang dynasty]] [[oracle bone]]s using the [[oracle bone script]]s.
The Chinese [[orthography]] centers on Chinese characters, ''hanzi'', which are written within imaginary rectangular blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns. Chinese characters are [[morpheme]]s independent of phonetic change. Thus the character [[wikt:一|一]] ("one") is uttered ''yī'' in [[Standard Chinese]], ''jat1'' in [[Cantonese]] and ''chi̍t''/''it'' in [[Hokkien dialect|Hokkien]] (form of Min). Vocabularies from different major Chinese variants have diverged, and colloquial nonstandard written Chinese often makes use of unique "dialectal characters", such as 冇 and 係 for Cantonese and [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], which are considered archaic or unused in standard written Chinese.
Written colloquial Cantonese has become quite popular in online [[chat room]]s and [[instant messaging]] amongst Hong-Kongers and Cantonese-speakers elsewhere. Use of it is considered highly informal, and does not extend to many formal occasions.
In [[Hunan]], women in certain areas write their local language in [[Nü Shu]], a [[syllabary]] derived from [[Chinese characters]]. The [[Dungan language]], considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in [[Cyrillic]], and was previously written in the [[Arabic script]]. The [[Dungan people]] are primarily Muslim and live mainly in [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], and [[Russia]]; some of the related [[Hui people]] also speak the language and live mainly in China.
=== Caracteres chineses ===
[[File:XingshuLantingxv.jpg|thumb|right|"[[Lantingji Xu|Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion]]" by [[Wang Xizhi]], written in [[Semi-cursive script|semi-cursive style]]]]
Each Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed [[Han dynasty]] scholar [[Xu Shen]] [[Chinese character classification|classified characters]] into six categories, namely [[pictograph]]s, simple [[ideograph]]s, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds and derivative characters. Of these, only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as ''rén'' 人 (human), ''rì'' 日 (sun), ''shān'' 山 (mountain; hill), ''shuǐ'' 水 (water). Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as ''chōng'' 沖 (pour), combining a phonetic component ''zhōng'' 中 (middle) with a semantic [[Radical (Chinese character)|radical]] 氵 (water). Almost all characters created since have been of this type. The 18th-century [[Kangxi Dictionary]] recognized 214 radicals.
Modern characters are styled after the [[kaishu|regular script]]. Various other written styles are also used in [[Chinese calligraphy]], including [[seal script]], [[cursive script (East Asia)|cursive script]] and [[clerical script]]. Calligraphy artists can write in traditional and simplified characters, but they tend to use traditional characters for traditional art.
There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. The [[Traditional Chinese character|traditional system]], still used in [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], [[Macau]] and Chinese speaking communities (except [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]]) outside [[mainland China]], takes its form from standardized character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty. The [[Simplified Chinese character]] system, introduced by the People's Republic of China in 1954 to promote mass [[literacy]], simplifies most complex traditional [[glyph]]s to fewer strokes, many to common cursive [[shorthand]] variants.
[[Singapore]], which has a large Chinese community, is the first—and at present the only—foreign nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the ''de facto'' standard for younger ethnic Chinese in [[Malaysia]]. The [[Internet]] provides the platform to practice reading the alternative system, be it traditional or simplified.
A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a [[Newspapers of the People's Republic of China|Mainland newspaper]]. The PRC government defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. A large unabridged [[dictionary]], like the Kangxi Dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.
=== Homófonos ===
Standard Chinese has fewer than 1,700 distinct syllables but 4,000 common written characters, so there are many [[homophone]]s. For example, the following characters (not necessarily words) are all pronounced ''jī'': 鸡／雞 ''chicken'', 机／機 ''machine'', 基 ''basic'', 击／擊 ''to hit'', 饥／饑 ''hunger'', and 积／積 ''accumulate''. In speech, the meaning of a syllable is determined by context (for example, in English, "some" as the opposite of "none" as opposed to "sum" in arithmetic) or by the word it is found in ("some" or "sum" vs. "summer"). Speakers may clarify which written character they mean by giving a word or phrase it is found in: 名字叫嘉英，嘉陵江的嘉，英國的英 ''Míngzi jiào Jiāyīng, Jiālíng Jiāng de jiā, Yīngguó de yīng'' – "My name is ''Jiāyīng'', 'Jia' as in '[[Jialing River]]' and 'ying' as in 'England'."
Southern Chinese varieties like Cantonese and Hakka preserved more of the [[syllable rime|rimes]] of Middle Chinese and also have more tones. Several of the examples of Mandarin ''jī'' above have distinct pronunciations in Cantonese (romanized using [[jyutping]]): ''gai1'', ''gei1'', ''gei1'', ''gik1'', ''gei1'', and ''zik1'' respectively. For this reason, southern varieties tend to need to employ fewer multi-syllabic words.
== Fonoloxía ==
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