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{{enuso}}
{{Outroshomónimos|Memoria (homónimos)}}
Na [[psicoloxía]], a '''memoria''' trátase da habilidade do organismo para almacear, reter, e recuperar [[información]] e experiencias. Estudos tradicionais da memoría comezaron no eido da [[filosofía]], incluíndo técnicas [[nemotecnia|artificiais de mellora da memoria]].
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Tamén mostra o almacenamento sensorial coma un todo, mentres sabemos que o almacenamento sensorial divídese en varias partes, como o gusto, a visión e a audición.
 
===Memoria de traballo===
[[Image:Working memory model.svg|right|frame|The working memory model.]]
{{AP|Memoria de traballo}}
In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a [[Baddeley's model of working memory|'''working memory model''']] which replaced the concept of general short term memory with specific, active components. In this model, working memory consists of three basic stores: the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this model was expanded with the multimodal episodic buffer.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | author = Baddeley, A.D. | year = 2000 | title = The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | url = | journal = Trends in Cognitive Science | volume = 4 | issue = | pages = 417–23 }}</ref>
 
The central executive essentially acts as attention. It channels information to the three component processes: the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.
 
The phonological loop stores auditory information by silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop: the articulatory process (for example the repetition of a telephone number over and over again). Then, a short list of data is easier to remember.
 
The [[Visuospatial Sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]] stores visual and spatial information. It is engaged when performing spatial tasks (such as judging distances) or visual ones (such as counting the windows on a house or imagining images).
 
The episodic buffer is dedicated to linking information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g., the memory of a story or a movie scene). The episodic buffer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory and semantical meaning.
 
The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague. {{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}
 
===Niveis de procesamento===
{{AP|Levels-of-processing effect}}
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method and depth of processing that affects how an experience is stored in memory, rather than rehearsal.
 
*'''Organization''' - Mandler (1967) gave participants a pack of word cards and asked them to sort them into any number of piles using any system of categorisation they liked. When they were later asked to recall as many of the words as they could, those who used more categories remembered more words. This study suggested that the act of organising information makes it more memorable.
*'''Distinctiveness''' - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980) asked participants to say words in a distinctive way, e.g. spell the words out loud. Such participants recalled the words better than those who simply read them off a list.
*'''Effort''' - Tyler ''et al.'' (1979) had participants solve a series of anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and some difficult (HREFAT). The participants recalled the difficult anagrams better, presumably because they put more effort into them.
*'''Elaboration''' - Palmere ''et al.'' (1983) gave participants descriptive paragraphs of a fictitious African nation. There were some short paragraphs and some with extra sentences elaborating the main idea. Recall was higher for the ideas in the elaborated paragraphs.
 
==Classification by information type==
Anderson (1976)<ref>Anderson, J.R. (1976). Language, Memory and Thought. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.</ref> divides long-term memory into ''[[declarative memory|declarative (explicit)]]'' and ''[[procedural memory|procedural (implicit)]]'' memories.
 
[[Declarative memory]] requires [[conscious]] [[recollection|recall]], in that some conscious process must call back the information. It is sometimes called ''[[explicit memory]]'', since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.
 
Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into [[semantic memory]], which concerns facts taken independent of context; and [[episodic memory]], which concerns information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract [[knowledge]] about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. [[Autobiographical memory]] - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. [[Visual memory]] is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a [[mental image]]. Visual memory can result in [[priming (psychology)|priming]] and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon. [http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Memory%2C_visual]
 
In contrast, [[procedural memory]] (or ''[[implicit memory]]'') is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on [[implicit]] learning. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning [[motor skill]]s and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is [[Unconscious mind|unconsciously]] accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in [[motor learning]] depends on the [[cerebellum]] and [[basal ganglia]].
 
'''Topographic memory''' is the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places.<ref>http://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/iidris/cache/an/40/4003</ref> Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic memory. This is often reported among elderly patients who are evaluated for dementia. The disorder could be caused by multiple impairments, including difficulties with perception, orientation, and memory.<ref>http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=76974189</ref>
 
==Classification by temporal direction==
A further major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past, [[retrospective memory]], or whether the content is to be remembered in the future, [[prospective memory]]. Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or ''remembering to remember'' (Winograd, 1988). Prospective memory can be further broken down into event- and time-based prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the action (as the mailbox example is), and lists, sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the finger are all examples of cues that are produced by people as a strategy to enhance prospective memory.
 
==Physiology==
Brain areas involved in the [[neuroanatomy of memory]] such as the [[hippocampus]], the [[amygdala]], the [[striatum]], or the [[mammillary bodies]] are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and [[declarative learning]], while the amygdala is thought to be involved in [[Emotion and memory|emotional memory]]. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, [[learning]], as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal [[synapse]]s, thought to be mediated by [[long-term potentiation]] and [[long-term depression]].
 
Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of [[cortisol]] or [[epinephrine]] help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause [[memory loss]] and problems with memory storage.<ref>{{cite book | last =Kalat | first =J. W. | title =Biological psychology (7th ed.) | publisher = Wadsworth Publishing | year =2001 | location =Belmont, CA }}</ref>
 
==Genetics==
Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy. A notable initial success was the association of [[Apolipoprotein E|APOE]] with memory dysfunction in [[Alzheimer's Disease]]. The search for genes associated with normally-varying memory continues. One of the first candidates for normal variation in memory is the gene ''[[KIBRA]]'', which appears to be associated with the rate at which material is forgotten over a delay period.
 
==Disorders==
Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying ''[[memory disorder]]''s. Loss of memory is known as [[amnesia]]. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other [[neurology|neurological]] disorders such as [[Alzheimer's disease]] can also affect memory and cognition.
[[Hyperthymesia]], or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder which affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg19726431.600-forgetfulness-is-key-to-a-healthy-mind.html Forgetfulness is the Key to a Healthy Mind]. [[New Scientist]], February 16. 2008.</ref> [[Korsakoff's syndrome]], also known as Korsakoff's psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory.
 
While not a disorder, a common ''temporary'' failure of word retrieval from memory is the [[Tip of the tongue|tip-of-the-tongue]] [[phenomenon]]. Sufferers of Nominal Aphasia (also called [[Anomia]]), however, do experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal [[lobes of the brain]].
 
==Methods==
<!-- What is this section about ? there is already a section "Process", for memorization's process. This is Method, or Recent studies ?-->
;Methods to optimize memorization
Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. [[Rote learning]] is the method most often used. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as [[Cosmos Rossellius]] using [[visual alphabets]]. The [[spacing effect]] shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this is [[Cram school|cramming]] which is intensive memorisation in a short period of time. Also relevant is the [[Zeigarnik effect]] which states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones.
 
;Interference from previous knowledge
At the Center for Cognitive Science at [[Ohio State]] [[University]], researchers have found that memory accuracy of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more than children and tend to apply this knowledge when learning new information. The findings appeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science.
 
Interference can hamper memorisation and retrieval. There is [[Interference theory|retroactive interference]] when learning new information causes forgetting of old information, and proactive interference where learning one piece of information makes it harder to learn similar new information.<ref>[http://www.scienceblog.com/cms/blog/4909-forgetting-what-you-havent-yet-learned-16785.html ScienceBlog: Forgetting what you haven't yet learned]</ref>
 
;Influence of odors and emotions
In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-activate new memories in the brains of people while they slept and the volunteers remembered better later.<ref>[http://newsmax.com/archives/articles/2007/3/12/90015.shtml Smell of Roses May Improve Memory]. [[Reuters]], March 12, 2007.</ref>
Emotion can have a powerful impact on memory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity and detail than neutral events.<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memory</ref>
 
==Memory and aging==
{{Main|Memory and aging}}
One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of [[memory loss]], especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of [[Alzheimer's disease]]. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in normal [[aging]] from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's (Budson & Price, 2005).
 
==Improving memory==
A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that people can improve [[Cognition|cognitive function]] and brain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, [[healthy eating]], [[physical fitness]] and [[Stress management|stress reduction]] into their daily lives.<ref>[http://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/UCLA-Study-Finds-that-Simple-Lifestyle-7062.aspx?RelNum=7062 UCLA Study Finds that Simple Lifestyle Changes May Improve Cognitive Function and Brain Efficiency]</ref>
 
There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques that can be used to vastly improve memory known as the [[Art of memory]].
 
The [[International Longevity Center]] released in 2001 a report<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilcusa.org/_lib/pdf/isoa.pdf|format=PDF|title=International Longevity Center report on memory|accessdate=1 September 2008}}</ref> which includes in pages 14–16 recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay intellectually active through learning, training or reading, to keep physically active so to promote blood circulation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability and to observe good nutrition.
 
==Memory tasks==
*'''Paired associate learning''' - when one learns to associate one specific word with another. For example when given a word such as "safe" one must learn to say another specific word, such as "green". This is stimulus and response.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-438701/paired-associate-learning paired-associate learning - Britannica Online Encyclopedia<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
*'''Free recall''' - during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of words and then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down as many words that they can remember.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23547/memory memory:: Recall - Britannica Online Encyclopedia<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
*'''Recognition''' - subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures, after which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words or pictures from among a list of alternatives that were not presented in the original list.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23548/memory memory:: Recognition - Britannica Online Encyclopedia<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
 
==See also==
* [[Indirect tests of memory]]
* [[Memory-prediction framework]]
* [[Method of loci]]
* [[Muscle memory]]
* [[Music-related memory]]
* [[Neuroanatomy of memory]]
* [[Memory and aging]]
* [[Piphilology]]
* [[Synaptic plasticity]]
* [[Interference theory]]
 
==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|3}}
 
==References==
{{Refbegin|2listaref}}
* [[Georges Chapouthier]], From the search for a molecular code of memory to the role of neurotransmitters: a historical perspective, Neural Plasticity, 2004, 11(3-4), 151-158
* {{cite book |author=Julia Russell; Cardwell, Mike; Flanagan, Cara |title=Angels on Psychology: Companion Volume |publisher= Nelson Thornes |location=Cheltenham, U.K |year= 2005|pages= |isbn=0-7487-9463-8 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}
* {{cite journal | last = Costa-Mattioli | first = M | coauthors = et al. | year = 2007 | url = http://www.cell.com/content/article/abstract?uid=PIIS0092867407003248 | title = eIF2α Phosphorylation Bidirectionally Regulates the Switch from Short- to Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity and Memory | journal = [[Cell (journal)|Cell]] | volume = 129 | pages = 195–206 | pmid = 17418795 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2007.01.050 | issue = 1 }}
{{Refend}}
* Asimov, Isaac (1979). Life and time. New York: Avon Books.
* Brockmeier, Jens (2010). After the Archive: Remapping memory. ''Culture & Psychology, 16''(1), 5-35.
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==External links==
{{External links|date=November 2009}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://alicekim.ca/ The Works of Endel Tulving]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/memory/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
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* [http://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/s4/iv7.html Learning and Memory], ''Neuroscience Online'' (electronic neuroscience textbook by UT Houston Medical School)
 
{{Psychology}}
{{Memory}}
{{Nervous system physiology}}
 
[[Category:Memory| ]]
[[Category:Neuropsychological assessment]]
[[Category:Sources of knowledge]]
 
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